Английский язык для юристов. Предпринимательское право - Станислав Коростелев

In some situations, laws require certain types of contracts to be in writing. A written contract does not have to be a long, formal, preprinted agreement. A written contract may take the form of a letter, sales slip and receipt, notation, or memorandum. A written contract may be typed, printed, scrawled, or written in beautiful penmanship.

One who knowingly accepts benefits from another person may be obligated for their payment, even though no express agreement has been made. Agreements of this type can be either implied in fact or implied in law.

Contracts implied by the direct or indirect acts of the parties are known as implied-in-fact contracts.

An implied-in-law contract can be imposed by a court applying reasons of justice and fairness when someone is unjustly enriched at the innocent expense of another. It is used when a contract cannot be enforced or when there is no actual written, oral, or implied-in-fact agreement. An implied-in-law contract is also called a quasi-contract. It does not result from the mutual assent of the parties such as an express or implied-in-fact contract.

Under common law principles, a formal contract differs from other types in that it has to be written; signed, witnessed, and placed under the seal of the parties; and delivered.

A special type of formal contract – contract of record – is not a contract in the true sense of the word because it is court created, and it does not have all the elements of a valid contract. Often, such a contract is one that has been confirmed by the court with an accompanying recorded judgment giving the successful litigant the right to demand satisfaction of the judgment.

An oral or written contract that is not under a seal or is not a contract of record is considered an informal contract (also known as a simple contract). An informal contract generally has no requirements as to language, form, or construction. It comprises obligations entered into by parties whose promises are expressed in the simplest and, usually, most ordinary nonlegal language.

After a contract has been negotiated, all obligations must then be satisfactorily performed in order for the contract to be executed. A contract that has not yet been fully performed by the parties is called an executory contract. When a contract's terms have been completely and satisfactorily carried out by both parties, the contract becomes an executed contract. Such a contract is no longer an active agreement and is valuable only if a dispute about the agreement occurs.

Exercise 1. Comprehension questions:

1. How are the two contracting parties called?

2. What are the requirements of an offer?

3. Can it be called an acceptance when the offeree changes the terms?

4. What does the mutual assent suppose?

5. In what cases do people have the right to abandon their contracts?

6. What is a consideration and why is it an important element of a contract?

7. What makes the contract illegal?

8. Can quasi-contract be called a contract in the true sense of the word?

9. What is the contract of record?

Exercise 2. Find in the text English equivalents to the following:

Явно выраженный договор; подразумеваемый договор; лицо, по отношению к которому принято обязательство; кредитор по обязательству; лицо, принявшее на себя обязательство; должник по обязательству, дебитор; кредитор по договору; должник по договору; договор, не могущий быть принудительно осуществленным в исковом порядке; оспоримая сделка; ничтожная сделка.

Exercise 3. Consult recommended dictionaries and give words or phrases to the following definitions:

Возмездный договор; безвозмездный договор; публичный договор; предварительный договор; договор в пользу третьего лица; толкование договора; простая письменная форма договора.

Exercise 4. Be ready to talk on one of the following topics:

1. Identify the six elements of a contract.

2. Distinguish contracts from other agreements made between different parties.

3. Explain the nature of valid, void, voidable, and unenforceable contracts.

4. Contrast unilateral and bilateral contractual arrangements.

5. Outline the difference between express and implied contracts.

6. Contrast the nature of a formal contract with that of an informal contract.

7. Explain how executory contracts differ from executed contracts.

Exercise 5. Make up your own dialog on the case: In Kunian v. Development Corp. of America, the seller of plumbing and heating materials entered into an installment contract with the buyer. Several months later the buyer was $38,000 behind in payments for installments of goods delivered. After the seller demanded assurance of performance from the buyer, the buyer promised that he would pay the outstanding indebtedness if the seller would continue his performance. When a month passed and the buyer had made no further payments, the seller informed the buyer that no further deliveries would be made unless the buyer deposited in escrow a sufficient amount of cash to pay for the delivered goods. The court held that the seller had «reasonable ground for insecurity» and that his suspension of performance was justified.

Exercise 6. Resume in industry buzz:

Types of Ks

1. Express or Implied a. Express is statemts of mutual assent; willingness to enter into a K

b. Implied is no statements; conduct

2. Bilateral, Unilateral or Code a. Code is sale of goods & no bi/uni distinction b. Bilateral formed w/mutual promises of parties, perf. of both fully executory c. Unilateral promise 1 side & fully executed perf. the other (K no formed until fully executed 1 side)

3. Telling if Bilateral or Unilateral a. Unilateral if offer warns only accept by act or if public offer b. Bilateral always if asks for return promise c. Offer indifferent (can't tell if promise or perf. requested) MAJ it's bilateral

Unit 3

Offer and Acceptance

Оферта и акцепт

Офертой (глава 28 ГК РФ) признается такое предложение, которое: а) должно быть достаточно определенным и выражать явное намерение лица заключить договор; б) должно содержать все существенные условия договора; в) должно быть обращено к одному или нескольким конкретным лицам. Акцептом признается согласие лица, которому адресована оферта, принять это предложение, причем не любое согласие, а лишь такое, которое является полным и безоговорочным. Акцептом считается также совершение лицом, получившим оферту, в срок, установленный для акцепта, действий по выполнению указанных в ней условий договора. Будучи полученными, оферта и акцепт порождают юридические последствия для совершивших их лиц.

List of key terms and word combinations:

– acceptance – акцепт, акцептование

– cost-plus contract – договор на условиях оплаты фактических расходов с начислением определенного процента от этих расходов

– counteroffer – встречное предложение; контроферта

– current market price contract – договор на условиях оплаты по текущим рыночным ценам

– firm offer – предложение товара или ценных бумаг по твердой цене; твердое предложение

– invitation to trade – приглашение сделать оферту

– mirror image rule – правило зеркального отображения

– offer – предложение; оферта

– offeree – адресат оферты; лицо, которому делается предложение

– offerer – оферент; лицо, делающее предложение

– option contract – опционный контракт

– output contract – договор о продаже всей произведенной продукции

– public offer – оферта, обращенная к неопределенному кругу лиц

– rejection – отклонение, отказ

– requirements contract – контракт «на все потребности покупателя» (предусматривающий закупку покупателем только у одного поставщика)

– revocation – отмена, аннулирование; ревокация

The first element of a valid contract is the existence of an offer. An offer is a proposal made by one party to another indicating a willingness to enter into a contract. The person who makes an offer is called an offeror. The person to whom the offer is made is called the offeree. An offer is valid only if it has serious intent, has clear and reasonably definite terms, and has been communicated to the offeree.

An offer is invalid if it is made as an obvious joke, during an emotional outburst of rage or anger, or under circumstances that might convey a lack of serious intent. The offerer's words or actions must give the offeree assurance that a binding agreement is intended. Serious intent is determined by the offerer's words and actions and by what the offeree believed was intended by those words and actions.

The offerer's words must give the offeree assurance that a binding agreement is intended.

The terms of an offer must be sufficiently clear to remove any doubt about the contractual intentions of the offerer.

The communicated terms of an offer must be sufficiently clear to remove any doubt about the contractual intentions of the offerer. No valid offer will exist when terms are indefinite, inadequate, vague, or confusing.

In general, an offer should include points similar to those covered in a newspaper story – who, what, when, where, and how [much] – if it is to be clear, definite, and certain. In other words, the offer should identify the parties involved in the contract, the goods or services that will be the subject matter of the contract, the price the offerer is willing to pay or receive, and the time required for the performance of the contract.

Sometimes laws permit offers to omit certain information. They can state that even though one or more terms are left open a contract for sale does not fail for indefiniteness if the parties have intended to make a contract and there is a reasonably certain basis for giving an appropriate remedy. For example, cost-plus contracts, output contracts, requirements contracts, and current market price contracts are enforceable even though they are not complete in certain matters. A cost-plus contract does not include a final price. Instead, that price is determined by the cost of labor and materials plus an agreed percentage markup. An output contract is an agreement in which one party consents to sell to the second party all the goods that party makes in a given period of time. A requirements contract is an agreement in which one party agrees to buy all of the goods it needs from the second party. Finally, a current market price contract is an agreement in which prices are determined with reference to the market price of the goods on a specified date.

An offer must be communicated to the offeree to be valid. The communication of the offerer's intentions may be by whatever means is convenient and desirable. It may be communicated orally or by letter, telegram, or any other means capable of transmitting the offerer's proposal. It may also be implied. Acts and conduct of the proposing party are, in many cases, successful in communicating an intention to make an offer to another party witnessing them. When acts and conduct are sufficient to convey an offerer's intentions, an implied offer results.

At times, an offer must be communicated to a party whose name, identity, or address is unknown. In such cases, a public offer is made. A public offer is made through the public media but is intended for only one person whose identity or address is unknown to the offerer. The classic example of a public offer is an advertisement in a lost-and-found column in a newspaper.

By contrast, invitations to trade are not offers. An invitation to trade is an announcement published for the purpose of creating interest and attracting a response by many people. Newspaper and magazine advertisements, radio and television commercials, store window displays, price tags on merchandise, and prices in catalogs are included within this definition. In the case of an invitation to trade, no binding agreement develops until a responding party makes an offer that the advertiser accepts.

The second major element in a binding contract is acceptance of the offer. An acceptance means that the offeree agrees to be bound by the terms set up by the offerer in the offer. Only the offeree, the one to whom the offer is made, has the right to accept an offer. If another party attempts to accept, that attempt would actually be a new and independent offer.

Unilateral contracts do not usually require oral or written communication of an acceptance. When the offerer makes a promise in a unilateral contract, the offerer expects an action, not another promise in return. Performance of the action requested within the time allowed by the offerer and with the offerer's knowledge creates the contract.

In bilateral contracts, unlike unilateral ones, the offeree must communicate acceptance to the offerer. Bilateral contracts consist of a promise by one party in return for a promise by the other. Until the offeree communicates a willingness to be bound by a promise, there is no valid acceptance.

An offer may be accepted by either express or implied means of communication. In an express acceptance, the offeree may choose any method of acceptance, unless the offer states that it must be made in a particular manner. A stipulation such as «reply by Federal Express» or «reply by certified mail» in the offer must be carried out to complete an acceptance.